More Thoughts on 40 'Unreached' Places

Missions researcher Justin Long recently produced a list of the 40 global districts that are the most 'unreached'. I posted some thoughts on this list already. Here are some more.

4. Social Organization

Dense populations give rise to complex social organizations. This is so of necessity as so many people living in close proximity need to structure their relations tightly to make life liveable and enable society to function. The people in these 40 provinces, then, highly value the group as opposed to the individual. They are collectivist places, where few make a decision without looking sideways to see what their significant others think. Individuals are often not even in a position to make decisions for themselves anyway. A parent (even for an adult), a brother or a husband may be the decision-maker. There is no question of making up one's own mind for such people. Issues of ultimate allegiance can be perceived very strongly as constituting a threat to the very existence of the group, or even society as a whole, making the consideration of such a change a very serious thing indeed. Paul Hiebert and his daughter Eloise Hiebert Meneses consider social organization to be of such importance that they structured an entire book on church planting around social categories.

Serious study of social organization is absolutely essential to understanding the host communities among whom one is working. And it is important on a strategic level too. I have written an article ("Recasting Evangelization Ethnicity, Kinship, Religion and Territory: Identifying Communities in South Asia") which challenges the way the Joshua Project (and other such lists) handles the phenomenon of caste. The caste system (which is the social structure of South Asia and thereby of many of these provinces) is exceedingly complex and the sociological interpretation of caste highly contentious. Suffice it to say that in my article I argue that single castes groups such as Potters do not constitute a community and therefore should not be considered the strategically significant entity.

5. Cities

One might be forgiven for thinking that the great cities found in many of the 40 provinces, such as Delhi, Kolkata, Karachi, Dhaka and Beijing, are the product of recent modernization. But this would be far from the truth, although modernization and globalization have massively increased their size. These cities are the product of centuries of development that would not be possible were it not for the four phenomena I have outlined above. Cities are the cultural product of societies that have an excess of food to requirement, which can be traded and taxed and used to support large numbers of people who are not directly involved in food production. These are therefore free to innovate, organize others, create art, explore science, and develop systems of ideas, myths and rituals to make sense of it all.

Furthermore, the biggest migration in human history is going on right now in the massive move to the cities as the world's emerging economies like India and China increasingly become major players in the global market place. The cities in these provinces, then, have become places of enormous human suffering as well as amazing openness to the gospel. Sadly, however, missions have often been slow to adjust to this momentous shift. Today's gospel messengers must focus on the cities, and be serious to address the multiple needs of the urban poor who have flocked to form their great bastis and shanty towns. The quiet rural life, for most of this century's gospel messengers, is not an option.

6. Religion and Culture

These provinces are most significant, then, as the cradles of the great global systems we call the 'world religions'. Though Islam was birthed in the desert a very high percentage of the world's Muslims are found in these 40 places. Likewise for Hindus and Buddhists. These places, then, are the great bastions of the three great religious systems that have traditionally been perceived by Christian missions as massive obstacles for their message. Moreover, efforts to differentiate between culture and religion in these places, in the hope that one might accept the one while rejecting the other, prove exceedingly complex and ultimately unsatisfying as so often the one turns out to be the flip side of the other.

As in the need to learn the host community's history the importance of in-depth understanding of their religion and culture cannot be overstated. It is only as the religious and cultural context is understood that careful contextualization of the gospel can be possible. This will inevitably lead to conflict as many Christians are not interested in such knowledge, preferring what they call the 'simple gospel'. Although I rejoice that such people are serious about sharing the Good News of Christ, I cannot but be deeply concerned for the long term health of any movement to Christ that emerges from such ministry.

Glossary to Caste and Kinship in a Modern Hindu Society

My publisher forgot to include the glossary to my book, Caste and Kinship in a Modern Hindu Society: The Newar City of Lalitpur, Nepal (Bangkok: Orchid, 2013, available here) so here it is for anyone struggling their way through it.

Apart from English terms, all names and terms are transliterated from Newari, Nepali (Np.) or Sanskrit (Skt.).

ācārya (ācāḥ)—learned teacher

āgã chẽ—Tantric shrine

āgã dyaḥ—god that resides in āgã chẽ

agnate—patrilineal kin, a person that is related to ego through links with males alone

aĩta—sweet presented as part of ritual gift-giving

Aji—midwife; provides ritual service at Birth Purification

Ajimā (Hāriti)—malevolent goddess

Ashtamātrika—Eight Mother Goddesses

ashtami—Eighth day of lunar fortnight; important for Buddhists

avatār—‘avatar’; incarnation of Vishnu

Awāle—Potter

aylaḥ—spirits, usually distilled from rice

bāhāḥ, bahi—Buddhist monastery

baigaḥ—uppermost storey of house

bājã—particular style of traditional music; music in general

baji—beaten rice, staple at feasts

Bāl Kumāri—one of the Eight Mother Goddesses

bali—sacrifice, usually animal

Banepa—small Newar town east of Bhaktapur

Bārāhi—lineage of Carpenters; one of the constituent thars of the Pengu Daḥ

Bhairava—blood-accepting, male deity; consort of the Devi

bhakta—devotee (usually in context of Vaishnavite sects)

bhajan—hymn

Bhimsen (Bhindyaḥ)—blood-accepting, male deity beloved of traders

bhincā macā—sister’s son and his children

bhoto (Np.)—waistcoat or vest of Bῦgadyaḥ

bhujyaḥ—offering to Bῦgadyaḥ

bhutu—hearth

bhway—feast

bodhisattva—one who aims to become a fully enlightened Buddha

Brahman—a member of a particular lineage with links to the priesthood

brahman—the uppermost of the four ideal varna categories; priest

Bhaktapur—Newar city, east of Lalitpur

bhusyāḥ—large cymbals

bhut/pret—ghost, malevolent spirit

buddhamārgi—a follower of the path of Buddha; one who has a Vajrācārya domestic priest

Bῦgadyaḥ (coll.)—the god of Bῦga; Karunāmaya/Matsyendranāth

caḥre—the fourteenth day of the waning fortnight, especially sacred to the worship of Shiva.

caitya—votive Buddhist shrine; like a stupa but much smaller

cāku—molasses

Cākwāḥdyaḥ (a.k.a. Minnāth)—accompanies Bῦgadyaḥ on the Jātrā

Caturmāsa—period of four months of Vishnu’s sleep

chẽ—house

cheli—ground floor of house

chwāsā—Remains Deity marked by an aniconic stone embedded in the ground

chwaylā bhu—pre-purification feast

cibhāḥ—(see caitya)

Citrakār—Painter

cuka—courtyard

cusyāḥ—small cymbals, accompany naykhĩ

cwatã—second floor of house

dakshina—ritual fee

dabu—dance platform

daḥmā—the main forward beam of the chariot

dāmaru (dabu dabu)—small, one-handed double-headed drum

dān—inauspicious gift

dāphā—a genre of traditional Newar music

darshan—view of the deity; obeisance

dasa karma—Ten Life-Cycle Rituals (see samskāra)

Dashmahāvidya—Ten Great Knowledges; a set of female protective deities

dekhā—Tantric initiation

devi—goddess; refers to all goddesses or specifically to the great Goddess (the Devi)

Dewāli—season for Lineage Deity Worship

dhāḥ—two-headed drum, may be played with wooden stick

dharma—religious duty, law, custom, classically set out in sacred texts (dharmashastra); by extension, moral order more generally

dhimay—double headed drum, played with hand and curved cane stick; bigger than dhāḥ

dholi (Np.)—palanquin

digu dyaḥ—Lineage Deity

doti—traditional wrap-around loincloth

dyaḥ—god

dyaḥ pālā—god guardian; caretaker of a temple

Dyaḥlā—Fisherman/Sweeper

ekadasi—11^th day of lunar fortnight; sacred to Vaishnavites

emic—the perspective of the insider (the opposite of etic)

galli—narrow lane

Ganesh (Ganedyaḥ)—elephant-headed god, Shiva’s first son and god of beginnings

ghaḥ—traditional Newar water pot

Ghaḥku—a lineage of Farmers who act as brakemen for the Bῦgadyaḥ and Cākwāḥdyaḥ chariots

ghāt—slope, typically adjacent to a river

ghyaḥ—clarified butter

Gubhāju (coll.)—Vajrācārya, Buddhist Priest

guthi (gu)—socio-religious association

guthiyār—member of a guthi

gway—areca (betel) nut

Haluwāi (coll.)—alternative thar appellation of Sweetmaker or more general referent of any sweetmaker

hāmwa—sesame

harmin—harmonium

hiti—water spout

Holi—important spring festival

Indra—the Vedic king of the gods

ishtadevatā—chosen deity

jā—boiled rice

jajmān—patron

jāt/jāti—common term for group of intermarrying lineages, or caste

jātrā—processional festival; The Jātrā refers specifically to that of Bῦgadyaḥ

jhyāli—small cymbals

Joshi—Astrologer

juju—king

Jyāpu (coll.)—Maharjan, Farmer

kacha—raw food

kāshyap (kāshi)-gotra—of Aryan (Indic) ancestry

Kasāḥ (coll.)—Mulmi/Nyāchyã Shresthas, Bronzesmiths

kaḥsi—roof terrace

kalasha—Flask used for sacred purposes

Kāpāli—Tailor-Musicians

Karamjit—Mahābrāhman death specialists

Karmācārya (Acāḥju)—Tantric priest

kartal—two-piece, one-handed percussion instrument

Karunāmaya—name of bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (see Bῦgadyaḥ)

Kāstakār—Carpenter (alt. to Sthāpit)

Kathmandu—capital city of Nepal; one of three cities of medieval Nepal Valley

Kãwã—skeletal demon

kawaḥ—sub-lineage

Khadgi (Nay)—Butcher

khaḥ—palanquin

khalaḥ—lineage

khĩ—drum

Khwapa (coll.)—Bhaktapur

khya—the goblin with the lolling red tongue

khyaḥ—field

Krishna—incarnation of Vishnu

kshatriya—second of ideal varna categories; warriors and kings

kuladevatā (Np.)—Lineage Deity (see digu dyaḥ)

Kumāri—Mother Goddess; also virgin goddess in Newar societies

Kwenādyaḥ (coll.)—Jala Vināyak; one of the four important forms of Ganesh in the Valley

lakh—one hundred thousand

lākha mari—sweet presented as part of ritual gift-giving

Lakshmi—goddess of good fortune; Vishnu’s principle wife

Lalitpur—city of Nepal (Kathmandu) Valley south of Bāgmati River; home of Pengu Daḥ

laptyā bhway—traditional Newar leaf-plate feast

laskus—ritual welcome at the door of house or gate of city

lhāsā-gotra—of Tibetan (Bodic) ancestry

Licchavi—ancient rulers of Nepal Valley

linga—phallic representation of Shiva

Lwahãkaḥmi (coll.)—Stonemason; one of the constituent thars of the Pengu Daḥ

magaḥ khĩ (Np. mādal)—small two headed drum Mahādyaḥ (Shiva)

Mahālakshmi—Mother Goddess

Maharjan—Farmer

Malla—rulers of medieval Nepal

mānā—volumetric measure of ten handfuls or about a litre

Mānandhar—Oil Presser

mandala (mandap)—sacred diagram or platform

Marikaḥmi (coll.)—Sweetmaker; one of the constituent thars of the Pengu Daḥ

mashān—cremation ground

mātã—first floor of a house

melā—grand festival

mhāy—tenant

mhyāy macā—daughter and her children

Mohani (Dashaĩ)—the most important festival of the autumn season

mridanga (Skt.; Nw. pacimā)—two-headed drum

mudrā—ritual position of the hands

muhāli—shawm (medieval-style oboe)

Mulmi/Nyāchyã Shresthas—Bronzesmiths

murti—image or form of deity

nāga—serpent deity

Nakaḥmi—(Newar) Blacksmith

nakhaḥ—festival

nakhaḥtyā—feast associated with a nakhaḥ

Narasimha—‘man-lion’ incarnation of Vishnu

Nārāyana—alternative name of Vishnu; common form in Nepal

nani—courtyard

Nāpit (Nau)—Barber

Nauni—Barber’s wife

nāyaḥ—supervisor

naykhĩ—double-headed drum, like dhāḥ but smaller; usually played by Butchers (Nay)

nitya pujā—daily worship

Nyāchyã—(see Mulmi)

Panauti—small Newar town in Banepa Valley

pāju—mother’s brother

Pānju—priest of Bῦgadyaḥ

Parbatiyā—Nepalese of the hills

pāthi—volumetric measure equivalent to eight mānās

Pengu Daḥ— ‘The Four Groups’; the focus of this study

phālca—public shelter

phuki—patrilineal relative

pikhā lakhu—carved stone that marks the ritual entrance to the house; Kumar

pitha (pigandyaḥ)—Power-Place

pitri—ancestor

pradakshinapātha (Skt.)—procession route

Prahlāda—son of Hiranyakashipu; devotee of Vishnu

prākrit—natural, aniconic stone image

Pramānas—medieval, de-facto rulers of Lalitpur

prasād—‘grace’; sanctified food, flowers and sinha distributed to worshippers in return for pujā

pujā—worship, usually comprising offerings of fruit, flowers, vermilion, and sweets

pujāri—temple priest

pukka—food that has been made acceptable to eat; well cooked; more generally, solid

purohit—domestic priest

punhi—full moon, auspicious day especially for Buddhists

pwanga—short horn

pyākhã—dance-drama

Rādhā—Krishna’s lover

Rājbhandāri—Royal Storekeeper, member of dominant caste

Rājopādhyāya—Newar Brahman caste

Rājkarnikār (Marikaḥmi)—Sweetmaker

Rām (Rāma)—avatar of Vishnu

Rana—rulers of Nepal from 1847-1951

sadhu (see sannyasin)—ascetic renouncer

sagã—good luck food; two varieties-egg (khẽy) and fish (nyā)

sāit—auspicious time

samay baji—feast-like meal consumed after special pujā

Samgha—Buddhist Monastic Community

samskāra—life-cycle rituals

Sankhu—small town north of Bhaktapur

sãnhu (sãlhu)—first day of solar month

sannyasin—ascetic renouncer

Sarasvati—goddess of learning, Brahma’s wife

Shaivite—of, or pertaining to, Shiva; worshipper of Shiva

Shah—present dynasty of Nepal kings; descendants of Prithvi Narayan Shah

Shākya (Bare)—Goldsmiths; also workers of silver and brass; shopkeepers; of one caste with Vajrācāryas

Shilākār (Lwahãkaḥmi)—Stonemason; alt. thar appellation for Shilpakār

Shilpakār (Lwahãkaḥmi or Sikaḥmi)—Sculptor

shivamārgi—a follower of the path of Shiva; one who has a Brahman priest

shudra—fourth of ideal varna categories; servants, slaves, labourers

Sikaḥmi (coll.)—Carpenter; one of the constituent thars of the Pengu Daḥ

sinha—mark of vermilion on forehead

shakti—divine power, personified as feminine

shawm—medieval-style oboe

shrāddha—Ancestor Worship

Shrestha—dominant Newar caste; proper thar name of some of these

sikāḥ bhu—meal involving ritual division of head of sacrificial animal

sinājyā myẽ—rice transplantation song

snāna—ritual bathing

soḥra shrāddha—Sixteen [Day] Ancestor Worship

Sthāpit (Sikaḥmi)—Carpenter

stupa (thur)—sacred mound

Swanti (Np. Tihār)—important late-autumnal festival

syāḥ phuki—close or ‘bone marrow’ kin

tāḥ—bells

taksāri—chief of royal mint

Taleju—chosen deity of Malla kings; blood-accepting female deity

Tamvaḥ (coll.)—Coppersmith; one of the constituent thars of the Pengu Daḥ

Tāmrakār (Tamvaḥ)—Coppersmith

tāpā phuki—distant kin

thaḥ chẽ—natal home of married woman

thākāli—senior male; elder

thākāli luyegu—initiation as a thākāli

thākāli nakĩ—senior married female

thar—surname

thāy bhu—ceremonial dish used at a Marriage or Mock Marriage celebration

Theravāda Buddhism—form of Buddhism found in Sri Lanka and more recently brought to Nepal

thon—homebrewed beer

thyasaphu—biographical entry on a legal document

trope—a word or expression used in a figurative sense

Tulādhar—principle thar of merchant caste in Kathmandu

tulasi—sacred basil plant; worshipped as Vishnu throughout Caturmāsa

twaḥ (Np. tol)—traditional locality

Urāy (coll.)—Tulādhar et al.

utsāva (Skt.)—festival

vaikuntha—Vishnu’s abode

Vaishnava (Vaishnavite)—of or pertaining to Vishnu; worshipper of Vishnu

vaishya—third of ideal varna categories; traders

Vajrācārya—Buddhist Priest

Vārāha—the boar-avatar of Vishnu

varna—‘colour’; system of castes in sacred texts; ideal caste structure

vermilion—mercuric sulphide; a bright red to reddish-orange coloured powder; mixed with curd, and husked rice it is applied with the finger to the image of the deity and thence to the worshipper’s forehead as prasād

Vishvakarma—patron deity of artisans

vrata—Observance including fasting usually in devotion toward a particular deity

waḥ—lentil cake

wala pala or wala pā—sub-section of guthi

yaḥ—festival

yaḥ mari—special rice cake especially consumed at winter solstice festival

yaḥsĩ—ceremonial pole

yajña (homa)—Fire Sacrifice

yaksha—demon

Yama (Yamadyaḥ, Yamarāja)—the god of the abode of the dead

Yāngwa—a lineage of Farmers who lash the chariot together with vines

Yẽnyaḥ (Indra Jātrā)—important late-monsoon festival

An Encounter with Alan Tippett (Part 2)

In my last post I addressed Tippett’s first of six problems that the evangelist of ‘animistic’ peoples needs to deal with. He has five more and taken together I think his case for treating primal peoples in a category of their own is seriously problematic.

Tippett’s second problem is the issue of motivation: “Animists may be interested in Christianity for many and varied reasons – some good, others bad”. However, this problem is universal wherever commitment to Christ is seen as a path to material gain, so it does not apply as a peculiar issue for the evangelization of primalists.

Tippett’s third problem is the issue of meaning: the message being proclaimed may be misunderstood by the hearers because of the worldview through which it is heard and received leading to all sorts of problems as Paul and Barnabas had (Acts 14:8-18). This, surely, is also universal – misunderstandings happen wherever the gospel is preached and no matter how sophisticated the community being evangelized.

Tippett’s fourth problem, social structure, likewise, is an issue in many types of society, not just those typically identified as animistic. In fact, even in complex urban societies social structure is an issue. At its most basic level family relations, marriage etc can be either an obstacle or a bridge to the spread of the message.

The issue of incorporation into the church (Tippett’s fifth problem) is linked with the issue of social structure and is certainly shared with other societies. Tippett is concerned that the proclamation of the gospel to animists is not carried on individualistically. Churches must be formed, not just isolated disciples, a given in the New Testament and one that Tippett rightly addresses, but not one that is unique to primal contexts.

Tippett’s sixth problem is the issue of cultural void. If churches are to thrive in animistic contexts they must be taught to value features of their culture that are positive rather than rejecting them all as necessarily evil. This, too, is clearly an issue in any situation where the gospel call is misunderstood as a call to abandon valid cultural activity.

So, of Tippett’s six problems I can’t recognize any that are peculiar to the evangelization of primal peoples. All this goes to demonstrate the difficulty of trying to isolate tribal peoples, or animists, or whatever we may call them as a distinct type of religion. When we look around at the peoples of the world and their religious experiences we have to recognize that we are all subject to one degree or another to primal tendencies – even missiologists! Nor are they all negative. Tippett’s six problems, then, apply to the evangelization of people of all kinds. Yet again the comparative religion project is found to be wanting.